The pterygopalatine fossa foramina, contents, connections and different approaches
| Foramen/channels | Location | Connection | Foramen contents | Accessibility for blockade (non-surgical) |
| Sphenopalatine foramen | Medial wall | Nasal cavity | Sphenopalatine artery Post. Nasal nerves | Endoscopic ‘true block’ Topical LA ‘presumed’ |
| Pterygomaxillary fissure | lateral | Infratemporal fossa | Maxillary artery branches | Image-guided CT or fluoroscopy |
| Palatine canal | Inferior | Roof of the mouth | Greater palatine nerve Lesser palatine nerve Descending palatine a. | Dentist’s approach |
| Inferior orbital fissure | Anterior wall, roof | Floor of the orbit | Inferior orbital nerve Inferior orbital artery Zygomatic nerve | NA |
| Foramen rotundum | Posterior wall, roof | Middle cranial fossa | Maxillary nerve | NA |
| Pterygoid canal | Posterior wall, medial | Middle cranial fossa | Vidian nerve (Greater petrosal nerve and Deep petrosal nerve) | NA |
| Palatovaginal canal | Posterior wall | Nasopharynx | Pharyngeal nerve Pharyngeal branch of the maxillary artery | NA |
LA, local anesthetic; NA, not available.